Ukraine during World War I

At the onset of World War I, Ukraine was not an independent state but was largely incorporated into the Russian Empire, with a western region under Austro-Hungarian control. The borders between these empires were established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

In the late 19th century, both the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires sought to influence Ukrainian territories amid a rising sense of nationalism. The Russian Empire regarded Ukrainians as Little Russians and had support from Russophile communities, while Austria-Hungary fostered Ukrainian nationalism.

The Russian military campaign in Galicia commenced in August 1914, achieving significant territorial gains against the Austrians. Approximately 3.5 million Ukrainians served in the Imperial Russian Army, while around 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army, leading to instances of Ukrainians fighting against each other.

The conflict severely affected Ukrainian civilians, with villages often destroyed during military operations. In Galicia, over 20,000 Ukrainians suspected of supporting Russian interests were detained in Austrian concentration camps.

The retreat of Russian forces in 1915 prompted a mass exodus of approximately 3.5 million civilians fleeing from advancing German and Austro-Hungarian troops. This evacuation led to widespread looting, destruction of infrastructure, and forced deportations, particularly targeting Eastern Orthodox populations.

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Ukraine experienced intensified conflict as various factions vied for control. Despite attempts to establish independent Ukrainian states in Kyiv and Lemberg, these efforts failed to gain international recognition.

The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 determined the borders of Ukraine, with Galicia and western Volhynia assigned to Poland, Bukovina to Romania, and central and eastern territories to the Soviet Union, leading to a significant loss of Ukrainian aspirations for statehood.