Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa initiated on Sunday, 22 June 1941, when over 3.8 million Axis troops invaded the western Soviet Union along a 2,900-kilometer (1,800 mi) front. The primary objective was to capture territory extending to a line between Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan, referred to as the A–A line. This invasion became the largest and most costly military offensive in history, involving around 10 million combatants in the initial phase and resulting in over 8 million casualties by the operation's conclusion on 5 December 1941.

The operation was named after Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and was part of Nazi Germany's broader ideological aims to eliminate communism and conquer the western Soviet Union. This included plans under Generalplan Ost, which sought to displace native Slavic populations in favor of German settlers. Key targets for the invasion included the agricultural and mineral resources of Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the oil fields in the Caucasus.

The invasion commenced with a significant ground and air assault, with Army Group South invading from occupied Poland on 22 June and later joined by German and Romanian forces from Romania on 2 July. Major cities such as Kiev were captured on 19 September, followed by Kharkov on 24 October and Rostov-on-Don on 20 November. By this time, much of Crimea was under Axis control, and Sevastopol was besieged.

Operation Barbarossa led to the capture of approximately five million Soviet Red Army troops and resulted in the deliberate starvation or execution of 3.3 million prisoners of war, along with millions of civilians. The operation also included mass shootings and gassing operations that killed over a million Soviet Jews as part of the Holocaust. The invasion had devastating effects on Ukraine, where many of these atrocities occurred.

Despite initial successes, the operation ultimately failed to achieve its objectives. The German high command expected a swift victory similar to their earlier invasion of Poland; however, the Red Army's resilience led to a prolonged war of attrition. By 5 December, German offensives stalled at the outskirts of Moscow, and subsequent operations faced significant challenges, marking a turning point in the war.